Journal article · 2020
Voice of farmers in the agriculture crisis in North-East Nigeria: Focus group insights from extension workers
International Journal of Development Issues, 19(1), pp. 43–61 · Published
Summary
Che et al. (2020) used a sequential mixed-methods design, a grounded theory literature review followed by a consensual qualitative research focus group with 16 agricultural extension workers from Adamawa State, to uncover ground-truth insights into the agriculture crisis in North-East Nigeria. They found that rural farmers face problems with government support in six core areas: farm input quality and dissemination, fair input subsidization, training, market facilitation, corruption and insecurity. The sample was relatively small, and a quantitative study with a much larger sample of farmers would improve generalizability.
Practical implication. Policymakers tackling the agriculture crisis in Nigeria should recognize the realities rural farmers face and urgently review the current process of farm input dissemination.
- The Problem
- The voices of rural farmers in conflict-affected North-East Nigeria are largely missing from research on the region’s agriculture crisis.
- The Methodology
- Sequential mixed-methods constructivist design: grounded theory literature review followed by a consensual qualitative research focus group with 16 extension workers (nominal group technique, discourse analysis, thematic concept mapping in NVivo 12).
- The Core Finding
- Extension workers from three local government areas of Adamawa State confirmed themes from the literature and added new ones, showing that rural farmers face significant problems with government support in six areas: farm input quality and dissemination, fair input subsidization, training, market facilitation, corruption and insecurity.
- The Citation
- Che, F. N., Strang, K. D., & Vajjhala, N. R. (2020). Voice of farmers in the agriculture crisis in North-East Nigeria: Focus group insights from extension workers. International Journal of Development Issues, 19(1), 43–61. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJDI-08-2019-0136
The summary, key findings, methods, implications and relevance notes on this page are this website’s own description of the paper, written from the published abstract and text. The official abstract and citation details are given further down.
Key findings
- Finding 1. The study of the agriculture crisis in North-East Nigeria drew on a focus group of 16 agricultural extension workers from three local government areas of Adamawa State (Mubi South, Mubi North and Maiha), 81% male and 19% female, 7 of whom held a university degree.
- Finding 2. The extension workers in the Nigerian study served professional networks averaging 169 farmers each (SD = 230, median 67), and 10 of the 16 had more than 15 years of extension experience.
- Finding 3. The study found that rural farmers in North-East Nigeria have significant problems with government support in six core areas: farm input quality and dissemination, fair input subsidization, training, market facilitation, corruption and insecurity.
- Finding 4. NVivo discourse analysis in the study identified government support, technology training, information diffusion, farm input subsidization, socio-cultural knowledge, downstream export market capability, agriculture financing and infrastructure logistics as the nodes with the most cross-references.
- Finding 5. Extension workers reported that fake fertilizers, herbicides and adulterated seeds reach North-East Nigerian markets because corrupt politicians intercept government farm inputs, and that the input dissemination system that replaced the Growth Enhancement Scheme is severely broken.
- Finding 6. The study reports that Boko Haram insecurity and kidnapping risk led to government bans on motorbikes in Mubi North and Mubi South, preventing farmers from reaching markets and extension workers from visiting farmers.
- Finding 7. According to the focus group, some rural farmers in North-East Nigeria earn only the equivalent of $1 per day, while the price of fertilizer is often higher than the price of a bag of corn.
Source: Che et al. (2020), International Journal of Development Issues, 19(1), pp. 43–61. DOI: 10.1108/IJDI-08-2019-0136
The study in detail
What question does this paper answer?
What do rural farmers in North-East Nigeria see as the ground-truth causes of, and remedies for, the agriculture crisis, as voiced by the agricultural extension workers who mentor them?
What did the study find, in detail?
A consensual qualitative research focus group with 16 agricultural extension workers from three local government areas of Adamawa State produced themes largely consistent with the literature but with several new issues. Rural farmers face significant problems with government support in six core areas: farm input quality and dissemination, fair input subsidization, training, market facilitation, corruption and insecurity.
Why does it matter?
The authors argue that if these six core areas were addressed, other problems might be indirectly mitigated through natural market growth, and that the government is the keystone stakeholder for all solutions. Policymakers should recognize the realities rural farmers face and urgently review the current process of farm input dissemination.
This study is part of the evidence overview What is holding back Nigerian agriculture and farm technology adoption? Evidence from extension workers and farmer surveys
Methods and data
| Research question | What ground-truth insights underlie the agriculture crisis from the perspective of rural farmers in North-East Nigeria? |
|---|---|
| Design | Sequential mixed-methods constructivist design: grounded theory literature review followed by consensual qualitative research (CQR) |
| Sample | 16 agricultural extension workers from Mubi South, Mubi North and Maiha LGAs, Adamawa State, Nigeria (focus group held 18 May 2019) |
| Methods | Nominal group technique, brainstorming, sense-making focus group, discourse analysis and thematic concept mapping in NVivo 12; SPSS 25 descriptives |
| Main result | Six core problem areas in government support: input quality and dissemination, fair subsidization, training, market facilitation, corruption and insecurity |
| Implication | Government should fix the input dissemination system, strengthen security, eliminate corruption and restore support for extension workers |
| Citation | Che et al. (2020) · DOI 10.1108/IJDI-08-2019-0136 |
Definitions and key terms
- Consensual qualitative research (CQR)
- A formal qualitative method in which a group discusses semi-structured open-ended questions and reaches consensus on domains and core themes, with an external auditor cross-checking the data. — as used in Che et al. (2020)
- Agricultural extension worker
- An experienced, well-educated farm practitioner hired and funded by the government to mentor farmers. — as used in Che et al. (2020)
- Nominal group technique
- A structured technique in which participants first independently generate ideas before they are pooled and discussed by the group. — as used in Che et al. (2020)
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this study is to uncover ground truth insights underlying the agriculture crisis from the perspectives of rural farmers in North-East Nigeria. The needs of individual farmers are otherwise not adequately reflected in national or regional economic development strategies. Design/methodology/approach – A unique sequential mixed-methods research design was adopted for this study. A grounded theory approach was used for the literature review followed by a consensual qualitative research (CQR) technique. Data were collected through a semi-structured sense-making focus group (FG) held at a field site with agricultural extension workers. The CQR technique included brainstorming, the nominal group technique, open discussions, sense-making and consensual agreement on the most important ideas. The FG sense-making was recorded, and discourse analysis was conducted to develop thematic concept maps using NVivo software. Findings – Agriculture crisis ground truth insight themes were consistent with the extant literature but several different issues were also found. Rural farmers in North-East Nigeria have significant challenges with government support in six core areas, namely, farm input quality and dissemination, fair input subsidization, training, market facilitation, corruption and insecurity. Research limitations/implications – The target population of this study was rural farmers in Adamawa State, North-East Nigeria. A relatively small sample of 16 agricultural extension workers – very experienced farmers who also act as mentors and are paid incentives by the government for doing so – was used. Practical implications – In tackling the agriculture crisis in Nigeria, policymakers will do well to recognize the realities that the rural farmers face and their needs, the government must address the areas highlighted in this study where support for farmers lacks and urgently review the current process of farm inputs dissemination. Originality/value – Agriculture crisis problems were explored from the perspectives of rural North-East Nigerian farmers, who have not been previously sampled due to cultural, language, literacy and schedule constraints. The extension workers were better able to communicate agriculture crisis insights in modern economic planning terminology because they are well-educated farmers, knowledgeable about the problems due to their field experience and because they have more flexible work schedules. A unique sequential mixed-methods constructivist research design was used with an embedded CQR technique, which would be of interest to scholars and research institutions.
Abstract as published in International Journal of Development Issues.
Keywords: North-East Nigeria; Agriculture crisis; Agricultural extension worker; Consensual qualitative research (CQR); Focus group; Qualitative data analysis software (QDAS); Discourse analysis
Limitations and open questions
- The relatively small sample of 16 agricultural extension workers representing the farmers' voice from three LGAs in North-East Nigeria.
- The CQR mixed method focused on analyzing complex qualitative data; a quantitative study with a much larger sample of farmers would improve generalizability.
- Follow-up studies could target rural farmers in other Nigerian regions or other African and developing countries, using different methods to allow triangulation.
Open questions
- Do the extension workers' priorities hold when rural farmers in other Nigerian regions are surveyed directly with quantitative methods?
- Would restoring input dissemination through the extension system, extension-worker allowances and farmer cooperatives measurably raise productivity?
Open questions from the evidence overview Agriculture, food security and farm information systems.
Practical implications
- Government should restore support for extension workers, fix the input dissemination system, strengthen security and eliminate corruption.
- For government, which the authors call the keystone stakeholder for all solutions, addressing the six core problem areas in its support for farmers might indirectly mitigate other problems through natural market growth.
- Scholars and research institutions sampling rural farmers may note that extension workers were better able to communicate agriculture crisis insights in modern economic planning terminology, as well-educated farmers with field experience and more flexible work schedules.
- Scholars can improve generalizability with a quantitative study of a much larger sample of farmers, since the consensual qualitative research (CQR) mixed method focused on analyzing complex qualitative data.
Drawn from Che et al. (2020), International Journal of Development Issues, 19(1), pp. 43–61.
When this research may be relevant
This article may be relevant to literature on the agriculture and food security crisis in North-East Nigeria, farmer-level barriers such as input quality, subsidies, training and market access, insecurity and corruption in rural development, and consensual qualitative research as a method for capturing practitioner voice.
Research topics addressed: agriculture crisis; food security; Nigeria; Adamawa State; rural farmers; agricultural extension workers; smallholder farmers; consensual qualitative research; focus group; grounded theory; NVivo; discourse analysis; corruption and insecurity; agricultural input subsidies
How to cite
- APA 7
- Che, F. N., Strang, K. D., & Vajjhala, N. R. (2020). Voice of farmers in the agriculture crisis in North-East Nigeria: Focus group insights from extension workers. International Journal of Development Issues, 19(1), 43–61. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJDI-08-2019-0136
- MLA 9
- Che, Ferdinand Ndifor, et al. “Voice of farmers in the agriculture crisis in North-East Nigeria: Focus group insights from extension workers.” International Journal of Development Issues, vol. 19, no. 1, 2020, pp. 43–61. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJDI-08-2019-0136.
- IEEE
- F. N. Che, K. D. Strang, and N. R. Vajjhala, “Voice of farmers in the agriculture crisis in North-East Nigeria: Focus group insights from extension workers,” International Journal of Development Issues, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 43–61, Jan. 2020, doi: 10.1108/IJDI-08-2019-0136.
BibTeX
@article{che2020voice,
title = {Voice of farmers in the agriculture crisis in North-East Nigeria: Focus group insights from extension workers},
author = {Che, Ferdinand Ndifor and Strang, Kenneth David and Vajjhala, Narasimha Rao},
journal = {International Journal of Development Issues},
volume = {19},
number = {1},
pages = {43--61},
year = {2020},
publisher = {Emerald Publishing Limited},
doi = {10.1108/IJDI-08-2019-0136},
url = {https://doi.org/10.1108/IJDI-08-2019-0136}
}RIS
TY - JOUR TI - Voice of farmers in the agriculture crisis in North-East Nigeria: Focus group insights from extension workers AU - Che, Ferdinand Ndifor AU - Strang, Kenneth David AU - Vajjhala, Narasimha Rao JO - International Journal of Development Issues PY - 2020 DA - 2020/01/10 VL - 19 IS - 1 SP - 43 EP - 61 PB - Emerald Publishing Limited SN - 1446-8956 DO - 10.1108/IJDI-08-2019-0136 UR - https://www.narasimharao.net/research/voice-of-farmers-agriculture-crisis-north-east-nigeria/ LA - en ER -
Links and files
Related work
Related work: the literature this study cites
The study draws on literature reporting that Nigeria imports more wheat, rice and sugar than its farmers grow[1], that the bulk wheat import-to-export ratio is growing at an unsustainable 11% a year[2], and that food insecurity affected over 90 million citizens in 2017–2018[3]. Cited development reports describe dilapidated rural roads, failed Vision 20:2020 infrastructure projects, weak agricultural policy and poor coordination between levels of government[4]. Earlier work found that a stronger extension-worker presence was associated with higher farmer productivity[5]. Conflict research is cited for the effect of kidnapping and insecurity on farmer behaviour[6]. Cited EU work found younger and more educated farmers more likely to adopt precision agricultural technologies[7], but age and education were not significant in a separate survey of Nigerian farmers on farm management information systems (FMIS) (Vajjhala et al., 2021, Recent Developments in…).
- [1] Fawole, W.O. and Ozkan, B. (2018), “Food insecurity risks perception and management strategies among households: implications for zero hunger target in Nigeria”, New Medit, Vol. 17 No. 2, pp. 29-42,. https://doi.org/10.30682/nm1802c
- [2] Omeje, E.E., Arene, C.J. and Okpukpara, C.B. (2019), “Impact of agricultural protection on agricultural growth in Nigeria: political economy perspective (1980-2016)”, Review of Agricultural and Applied Economics, Vol. 22 No. 1, p. 41.
- [3] Olomola AS and Nwafor M (2018) Nigeria Agriculture Sector Performance Review. Lagos, Nigeria: Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research (NISER): International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA).
- [4] AfDB (2013), Federal Republic of Nigeria Country Strategy Paper 2013-2017, Africa Development Bank/Africa Development Fund (AfDB), Nairobi.
- [5] Adetimehin OD, Okunlola JO and Owolabi KE (2018) Utilization of agricultural information and knowledge for improved production by rice farmers in Ondo State, Nigeria. Journal of Rural Social Sciences 33(1): 76.
- [6] Adelaja, A., & George, J. (2019). Effects of conflict on agriculture: Evidence from the Boko Haram insurgency. World Development, 117, 184–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.01.010
- [7] Barnes AP et al (2018) Exploring the adoption of precision agricultural technologies: a cross regional study of EU farmers. Land Use Policy J 80(1):163–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.10.004
From the evidence overview What is holding back Nigerian agriculture and farm technology adoption? Evidence from extension workers and farmer surveys, which cites only works that appear in the studies’ own reference lists. This is a selection, not the full reference list of Che et al. (2020).
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